The creation of the United States of America represented a unique event in world history – founded as a modern republic, it was rooted in the Bible, and one of its earliest tenets was religious tolerance.
This is because many of the earliest pilgrims who settled the "New England" of America in early 17th century were Puritan refugees escaping religious persecutions in Europe.
These Puritans viewed their emigration from England as a virtual re-enactment of the Jewish exodus from Egypt. To them, England was Egypt, the king was Pharaoh, the Atlantic Ocean was the Red Sea, America was the Land of Israel, and the Indians were the ancient Canaanites. They were the new Israelites, entering into a new covenant with God in a new Promised Land.
Thanksgiving ― first celebrated in 1621, a year after the Mayflower landed ― was initially conceived as a day parallel to the Jewish Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur; it was to be a day of fasting, introspection and prayer.
Writes Gabriel Sivan in The Bible and Civilization (p. 236):
"No Christian community in history identified more with the People of the Book than did the early settlers of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, who believed their own lives to be a literal reenactment of the Biblical drama of the Hebrew nation... these émigré Puritans dramatized their own situation as the righteous remnant of the Church corrupted by the 'Babylonian woe,' and saw themselves as instruments of Divine Providence, a people chosen to build their new commonwealth on the Covenant entered into at Mount Sinai."
Previously, during the Puritan Revolution in England, (1642-1648) some Puritan extremists had even sought to replace English common law with Biblical laws of the Old Testament, but were prevented from doing so. In America, however, there was far more freedom to experiment with the use of Biblical law in the legal codes of the colonies and this was exactly what these early colonists set out to do.
The earliest legislation of the colonies of New England was all determined by Scripture. At the first assembly of New Haven in 1639, John Davenport clearly stated the primacy of the Bible as the legal and moral foundation of the colony:
"Scriptures do hold forth a perfect rule for the direction and government of all men in all duties which they are to perform to God and men as well as in the government of families and commonwealth as in matters of the Church... the Word of God shall be the only rule to be attended unto in organizing the affairs of government in this plantation." (1)
Subsequently, the New Haven legislators adopted a legal code ― the Code of 1655 ― which contained some 79 statutes, half of which contained Biblical references, virtually all from the Hebrew Bible. The Plymouth Colony had a similar law code as did the Massachusetts assembly, which, in 1641 adopted the so-called "Capitall Laws of New England" based almost entirely on Mosaic law.
Of course, without a Jewish Oral Tradition, which helped the Jews understand the Bible, the Puritans were left to their own devices and tended toward a literal interpretation. This led in some instances to a stricter, more fundamentalist observance than Judaism had ever seen.
Jewish Influence On Education
The Hebrew Bible also played a central role in the founding of various educational institutions including Harvard, Yale, William and Mary, Rutgers, Princeton, Brown, Kings College (later to be known as Columbia), Johns Hopkins, Dartmouth etc.
Many of these colleges even adopted some Hebrew word or phrase as part of their official emblem or seal. Beneath the banner containing the Latin "Lux et Veritas," the Yale seal shows an open book with the Hebrew "Urim V'Timum," which was a part of the breastplate of the High Priest in the days of the Temple. The Columbia seal has the Hebrew name for God at the top center, with the Hebrew name for one of the angels on a banner toward the middle. Dartmouth uses the Hebrew words meaning "God Almighty" in a triangle in the upper center of its seal.
So popular was the Hebrew Language in the late 16th and early 17th centuries that several students at Yale delivered their commencement orations in Hebrew. Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Brown, Princeton, Johns Hopkins, and the University of Pennsylvania taught courses in Hebrew ― all the more remarkable because no university in England at the time offered it. (In America, Bible study and Hebrew were course requirements in virtually all these colleges and students had the option of delivering commencement speeches in either Hebrew, Latin or Greek.)(2)
Many of the population, including a significant number of the Founding Fathers of America, were products of these American Universities ― for example, Thomas Jefferson attended William and Mary, James Madison Princeton, Alexander Hamilton King's College (i.e. Columbia). Thus, we can be sure that a majority of these political leaders were not only well acquainted with the contents of both the New and Old Testaments, but also had some working knowledge of Hebrew.
Notes Abraham Katsch in The Biblical Heritage of American Democracy (p. 70):
"At the time of the American Revolution, the interest in the knowledge of Hebrew was so widespread as to allow the circulation of the story that 'certain members of Congress proposed that the use of English be formally prohibited in the United States, and Hebrew substituted for it.'"
Jewish Symbolism In America
Their Biblical education colored the American founders' attitude toward not only religion and ethics, but most significantly, politics. We see them adopting the biblical motifs of the Puritans for political reasons. For example, the struggle of the ancient Hebrews against the wicked Pharaoh came to embody the struggle of the colonists against English tyranny. Numerous examples can be found which clearly illustrate to what a significant extent the political struggles of the colonies were identified with the ancient Hebrews.
- The first design for the official seal of the United States recommended by Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Thomas in 1776 depicts the Jews crossing the Red Sea. The motto around the seal read: "Resistance to Tyrants is Obedience to God."
- The inscription on the Liberty Bell at Independence Hall in Philadelphia is a direct quote from Leviticus (25:10): "Proclaim liberty throughout the land unto all the inhabitants thereof."
- Patriotic speeches and publications during the period of the struggle for independence were often infused with Biblical motifs and quotations. Even the basic framework of America clearly reflects the influence of the Bible and power of Jewish ideas in shaping the political development of America. Nowhere is this more evident than in the opening sentences of the Declaration of Independence:
- "We hold these truths to be self evident that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among them are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness."
Whereas, these words echo the ideas of the Enlightenment (see Part 53), without a doubt, the concept that these rights come from God is of Biblical origin.
This and the other documents of early America make it clear that the concept of a God-given standard of morality is a central pillar of American democracy. The motto "IN GOD WE TRUST" first appeared on U. S. currency in 1864 and an a 1956 Act of Congress (largely passed as a counterforce to Godless communism) made it the official motto if the United States.
Many more things can be said about the Jewish influence on the values of America, but this is, after all, a crash course. We next turn to the Jews themselves.
Early American Jews
The history of Jews in America begins before the United States was an independent country.
The first Jews arrived in America with Columbus in 1492, and we also know that Jews newly-converted to Christianity were among the first Spaniards to arrive in Mexico with Conquistador Hernando Cortez in 1519.
In fact, so many Jewish conversos came to Mexico that the Spanish made a rule precluding anyone who could not prove Catholic ancestry for four generations back from migrating there. Needless to say, the Inquisition soon followed to make sure these Jewish conversos were not really heretics, and burnings at the stake became a regular feature of life in Mexico City.
As for North America, the recorded Jewish history there begins in 1654 with the arrival in New Amsterdam (later to be known as New York) of 23 Jewish refugees from Recife, Brazil (where the Dutch had just lost their possessions to the Portuguese). New Amsterdam was also a Dutch possession, but the governor Peter Stuyvesant did not want them there. Writes Arthur Hertzberg in The Jews in America (p. 21):
"Two weeks after they landed, Stuyvesant heard the complaint from the local merchants and from the Church that 'the Jews who had arrived would nearly all like to remain here.' Stuyvesant decided to chase them out. Using the usual formulas of religious invective ― he called the Jews 'repugnant,' 'deceitful,' and 'enemies and blasphemers of Christ' ― Stuyvesant recommended to his directors... 'to require them in a friendly way to depart.'"
The only reasons the Jews were not turned out was that the Dutch West Indian Company, which was heavily depended on Jewish investments, blocked it.
Jews and the American Revolution
By 1776 and the War of Independence, there were an estimated 2,000 (mostly Sephardic) Jews (men, women and children) living in America, yet their contribution to the cause was significant. For example, in Charleston, South Carolina, almost every adult Jewish male fought on the side of freedom. In Georgia, the first patriot to be killed was a Jew (Francis Salvador). And additionally, the Jews provided significant financing for the patriots.
The most important of the financiers was Haym Salomon who lent a great deal of money to the Continental Congress. In the last days of the war, Salomon advanced the American government $200,000. He was never paid back and died bankrupt.
President George Washington remembered the Jewish contribution when the first synagogue opened in Newport, Rhode Island in 1790. (It was called the Touro Synagogue and it was Sephardic.) He sent this letter, dated August 17, 1790:
"May the children of the stock of Abraham who dwell in the land continue to merit and enjoy the goodwill of the other inhabitants. While everyone shall sit safely under his own vine and fig-tree and there shall be none to make him afraid."
Note the reference to the "vine and fig-tree." That unique phrase is a reference to the words of Prophet Michah prophesying the Messianic utopia:
But in the last days it shall come to pass, that the mountain of the house of the Lord shall be established in the top of the mountains, and it shall be exalted above the hills; and people shall flow to it. And many nations shall come, and say, 'Come, and let us go up to the mountain of the Lord, and to the house of the God of Jacob; and he will teach us of his ways, and we will walk in his paths; for Torah shall go forth from Zion, and the word of the Lord from Jerusalem.' And he shall judge between many peoples, and shall decide concerning far away strong nations; and they shall beat their swords into plowshares, and their spears into pruning hooks; nation shall not lift up sword against nation, nor shall they learn war any more. But they shall sit every man under his vine and under his fig-tree; and none shall make them afraid; for the mouth of the Lord of hosts has spoken it.
This was an interesting choice of words on the part of Washington, but, as noted above, it is not surprising in light of the enormous influence that the Hebrew Bible had on the pilgrims and on the founding fathers of the new nation.
American Ambivalence Toward The Jews
It must be noted, however, that some of the other founding fathers were a bit more ambivalent about the Jews than was Washington.
John Adams, who said some highly complimentary things about the Jews,(3) also noted that "it is very hard work to love most of them [the Jews]. And he looked forward to the day when "the asperities and peculiarities of their character" would be worn away and they would become "liberal Unitarian Christians."
Thomas Jefferson thought Jews needed more secular learning so that "they will become equal object of respect and favor," implying that without such learning they could not expect to be respected. Writes Arthur Hertzberg in The Jews in America (p. 87):
"Jefferson was thus expressing the view of the mainstream of the Enlightenment, that all men could attain equal place in society, but the 'entrance fee' was that they should adopt the ways and the outlook of the 'enlightened.' Jefferson did not consider that a Yiddish-speaking Jew who knew the Talmud was equal in usefulness to society with a classically trained thinker like himself."
This idea that there was freedom for you in America as long as you were not "too Jewish," kept most Jews away. Until 1820, the Jewish population of America was only about 6,000!
This changed in the 1830s when Reform German Jews, who had scrapped traditional Judaism and were not "too Jewish," began to arrive. The great migrations of poor, oppressed Jews from Eastern Europe would follow near the turn of the century. But before we take up that story, we must look to see what was happening to the Jews of Europe.
(1) Abraham Katsh, The Biblical Heritage of American Democracy, (New York, 1977), p. 97.
(2) Ibid., 51-72.
(3) John Adams in a letter to F.A. Van Der Kemp, 16 February 1809: "... I will insist that the Hebrews have done more to civilize men than any other nation. If I were an atheist and believed in blind eternal fate, I should still believe that fate had ordained the Jews to be the most essential instrument for civilizing the nations. If I were an atheist of another sect... I should still believe that chance had ordered the Jews to preserve and propagate for all mankind the doctrine of a supreme, intelligent, wise almighty sovereign of the universe, which I believe to be the great essential principle of all morality, and consequently of all civilization… They are the most glorious nation that ever inhabited this earth. The Romans and their Empire were but a bauble in comparison to the Jews. They have given religion to three quarters of the globe and have influenced the affairs of mankind more, and more happily than any other nation, ancient or modern." As quoted in: Allan Gould, What Did They Think of the Jews, (New Jersey, 1997), pp. 71-72.
(37) Bridget Mansir, January 16, 2020 10:42 PM
Jews in America before Columbus!
1 Kings 9 and some of the Chronicles speak of King Solomon owning navy fleet ships for trade, and how they made 3 year trips navigating the globe! Also another King Hiram owned ships as well...there are Archeaologists that have documented that there were Jewish Phylacteries found in an Induan burial ground in Mexico..this predates Columbus discovering America, infact there are Jews that were descendants of Native American Indians..One of the Founding Fathers writes about it in a letter addressing how they have to be removed! Also we have the genocide of the American Indian Nations! There is a rock marked on northeast coastline where ship landed, and also Davidic Star found...there are Finds EVERYWHERE! Amazing how the Victor's like to have control of the history!
(36) Leonard Simons, July 3, 2019 1:48 AM
Excellently written and very informative.
I learned many facts about the Jews and there influence in the founding of this great nation.
(35) Anonymous, February 6, 2017 5:17 PM
wwwwwwwooooowwwwwww
wow
(34) Anonymous, April 3, 2012 5:25 PM
early US values
Thanks so much for this fine article. My sister is sure that this nation was founded on Christianity. We quarrelled because I said that our nation is not founded on any one religion but based on the standards and values of many, Our freedom to embrace a personal religion is part of the first amendment of the constitution. Although my sister still has the same mistaken idea, this article is a woderful way to refute such thinking. By the way, I am 72 years of age and she is 76.
(33) Ben Rosen, August 18, 2011 4:07 PM
Jewish history and assimilation
The sad commentary is that throughout most of Jewish history, too many Jews have inevitably assimilated into the majority culture. The good news is that sites such as yours, are also preventing many from doing so!
(32) Rick, May 4, 2009 10:31 PM
Proud to be an American (Jew)
I am an American, I am not an afro-american or a mexican american, I am an American who happens to be Jewish guy who has a long bloodline in America. I am a proud American and I am fascinated with the culture of my ancestors and will always be grateful to be a very important part of my Jewish and Americsn ideology.
(31) Terez Juarez, December 28, 2007 3:07 PM
always enjoyable reading!
As an immigrant to the US, I so very much enjoy learning this version of US history! Thank you!
(30) Tammy, December 27, 2007 11:58 AM
Wonderful and informative!
Ken Spiro is one of my all time favorite historians. I first heard him speak at an event for Aish Hatorah about 6 years ago and I was totally blown away by the depth and breadth of his historical accumen. Any article or video presented by this man is a must read for all Jews.I am an FFB with a sad excuse for Jewish history in my background. Ken Spiro's outstanding conveyence of historical fact fill many gaps in my understanding of the past. If we are to understand that " Maaseh Avot Siman Labanim", and "Ein Chadash Tachat Hashemesh", we had all better become students of history to glean information on what has worked for our people, and to learn from mistakes and not to repeat them.
(29) Norman Roberts, December 26, 2007 11:24 PM
Your program is outstanding.
I wish I had had a program such as yours in my youth.Love the history and the way it is presented.
(28) Kathy Sweetman, December 26, 2007 3:54 AM
Founding Fathers of the New World and Freemasonry
I love reading these History articles...so thank you.
Can you tell us about the Freemasonry/Illuminatey influence that has also impacted the New World by the Founding Fathers? I have read that many of them were Jews. How does Freemasonry sit with the Torah?
(27) Anonymous, December 26, 2007 3:01 AM
dollar has magendavid combine the stars, there is the m.d.
The gratitude of the Americans was such that on the dolar bill the stars were put in the shape of the mogen david.
Try it and you will see. My grandmother tried toget back the money from the U.S govrenm. being a descendent of Chaim Solomon. They told her that too many years had passed. If anyone would like to help me try, gladly. The money will go to Tzedaka.
(26) Hana, December 25, 2007 3:48 PM
Diaspora
After reading this I thought you might like to know that I had a relative on the Mayflower "journey". His son bought what is now Park Ave. from the Indians. I was 16 generations American Jew. I returned HOME to Jerusalem making Aliyah 3 yrs. ago. The first to return of my family!
(25) Emeq, December 25, 2007 10:42 AM
First Jews in the new world
Lineage was kept from many of us for decades, even whole generations, so that our ancestors might assimilate into "American" society. Through DNA testing I have found numerous Ashkenazim in my ancestry, and so the search began. I found that the Chief Rabbi of London, in the 12th century, wrote to the Jewish community a letter which enabled them to comply with English laws of the day requiring that everyone have a family name. One such result was: Avraham BenAvraham could become Avraham Albertson, Albertson being one of the acceptable family names. My male ancestors arrived in this form in 1615. Both the lineage of my mother and father show my Jewish heritage. I have often wondered how things would have turned out had I known the truth 45 years earlier.
(24) Barbara Martin, December 25, 2007 10:12 AM
amazed
I am thoroughly amazed at the history I initially missed out on. I thank you from my heart for sharing this info with us. Shall be looking forward to more articles. GOD bless you and yours.
(23) Russell Hays, December 25, 2007 9:46 AM
Remember Moses Michael Hays
Please don't forget the contributions of Moses Michael Hays, a sephardic Jew. Friend of Benjamin Franklin and Paul Revere. His was the first Synagogue before the Touro synagogue. He was also related to the Touro family.
(22) Eduardo Aranda, December 23, 2007 10:13 AM
Its good to see that we haven't forgotten the story of 1492 Christobal Colon, and how he himself a sephardic asst'd many sephardem to escape to good ole Mexico, and central and south America...and how their children made their way up the via Mexico into the now South West of the USA... very interesting how Hashem set up the events over time, in His supreme wisdom, so that we are all here in this place at this specific time... great story of events...thank you for the reminder...muchisimos gracias...
(21) george katz, June 24, 2005 12:00 AM
extremely interesting
(20) Anonymous, February 5, 2005 12:00 AM
jews in 1655 & 1812 american battles
what a great article. thank you for mentioning that jews fought in american battles since their arrival. i think of importance are the two men of battle who opened the doors for other jews to serve in america over the past 350 years. In 1655, under the law of new amsterdam, jews of military age were formally NOT allowed to serve in the military. Asser Levy and another Jewish settler, Jacob Barsimon, petitioned the new amsterdam council for the right to keep guard with the other burghers. although their original petition was denied, they appeared regularly with their muscats for military training and stood guard on the city walls. After two years the council finally relented and enrolled the men in the militia.
Their perservance planted the seeds of a tradition of Jewish American patriotism and service that has flourished throughout the history of the United States.
Asser Levy was the first jew to reside permanently in north america -- although many arrived before and after.
During the American Revolution 1775-81 many of our ancestry gave their lives in hopes for a life of freedom from "tyranny and oppression" in their new homeland.
In 1812 one most noted war hero turn politian was, a captain in the 13th pennsylvania infantry, mordecai myers who became a hero during the war when he and his men rescued more than 200 men at sackett's harbor where two boats were wrecked and sinking. He was later wounded at chrystler's farm during the canadian campaign, but recovered and went into politics. He was elected to the new york state assembly and became the first jewish mayor of schenectady, new york. died 1871 at the age of 95.
i am aware that your crash course in jewish history #55 was only a crash course teaser to other tapes, articles or classes available -- and wanted to pass this bit of trivia along.
Thank for sharing your talents with us all.
as always with respect,
a 10th generation dar,
desendant from philip moses russell,
dob 1747
dod 1830
occupation surgeon's mate,
1 year
commenced service in spring 1776
by order of george washington,
under the command of surgeon Morman,
second regime of the virginia line.
1812 pensioneer collected $20/mo + arrearage.
(recorded by Malcolm Stern, "first american jewish families", and unauthored "jewish war veterans of the USA").
(19) Benjie Frieling, March 10, 2004 12:00 AM
Extremely Helpful
If u need anything about jews in 18th century america and their civil rights and freedoms, this is the place to go. This helped me a lot with my report. Thank You!!
(18) Larry Willner, July 29, 2003 12:00 AM
West Point's first Jew
It's interesting to note (I first came across this during my 'Plebe' [freshman] year there) that one half of the first graduating class at West Point was Jewish.
Simon Magruder Levy was one of two graduates in the first class, Oct 12, 1802. He then served as an instructor in engineering at West Point for two years after which he was reassigned to a post in Georgia.
Unfortunately he had to resign from the Army because of illness in 1805 and died of the same illness in March 1807.
(17) Anonymous, July 29, 2003 12:00 AM
Excellent!!
This article is great!! It helped me a lot in my college research paper for my US History course (I'm writing about the history of the American Jewish community). Besides, it's very interesting!!
(16) claudia sofia, July 23, 2003 12:00 AM
thank you for writing some of the trues that are hidden. It's heavy to know things and not been able to share that with others...
a lots of greetings sofi from Stockholm
(15) Anonymous, July 23, 2003 12:00 AM
Jews in America
You mean I could've been speaking hebrew instead of english (which is a very bland language! Too bad the early fathers didn't ban the eglish language
(14) Anonymous, July 21, 2003 12:00 AM
fascinating
This article is terrific. It opened my eyes to American Jewish history and to American history in general.
Thank you
(13) Anonymous, July 21, 2003 12:00 AM
George Washington inaugeral
I have read in several sources that George Washington had 13 "representatives of faith" at in inaugeral including the Jewish leader Seixus. There was also the family story in Admiral Levy's family that Washington had attended his grandparents'wedding and danced at the festivities. Uriah P. Levy is known for, among other accomplishments, saving and restoring Monticello after Jefferson's death. There is an interesting new book on the subject.
(12) Bat Sheva Klein, July 20, 2003 12:00 AM
Nice!
Try these www.jewish-History.com,All of Jewish-history.com
(11) Gary Selikow, January 22, 2003 12:00 AM
Puritan Protestantism
It was because the USA was founded on Puritan Protestant rather than Catholic principles that it is a righteous nation and a friend of Israel and the Jewish people.
These Protestants are close to the spirit of the Tanach, and they take seriously the instruction from G-D that he will bless those who bless his people and curse those who curse them.
Cromwell was aware of this and that is why he invited the Jews to return to England.
Unfortunately England was restored to Anglicanism, which is very close to Popery, and that is why England once again became hostile to the Jews, evidenced by their attempts to make sure the restored Israel would be stillborn and their turning back of millions of Jews to Hitler's infernos.
As well as the hatred and venom directed against Israel today by most British opinion makers.
(10) Jack Turner, September 10, 2002 12:00 AM
One Correction
While expressing great respect for Rabbi Spiro, I would like to point out that Francis Salvador South Carolina, not Georgia. He and his father, Jacob Salvador, owned land in the 96 District and he arrieved in Charlest in 1773 from London to make use of the land. He was also the first Jew elected by a Christian majority in history and served on several extra-legal bodies leading up to the war. Finally, not only was Francis Salvador the first Jewish (and otherwise) casulity in South Carolina, but he was also the first Jewish casulity in the United States. Not much of a claim to fame, I know, but we get so few accolades in here that we repectfully request you not take away the ones we have.
(9) Gary Markell, December 24, 2001 12:00 AM
I am impressed with your insight and teachings!
I have recently found out ( about two years ago) the one of my ancesters arrived from Germany in 1705 and apparently was Jewish.The land in Pa. was aparently taken and for siding with The King of England during the Revoluntionary War they were imprisoned in Ft. Trenton for a year. Then migrated to Canada. My life has been a spiritual quest and you have added another dimension with your American history. Thank You, Shalom Gary Markell
(8) Anonymous, December 19, 2001 12:00 AM
Let us not forget, though....
Another culture from which our Founding Fathers drew inspiration were the Native American "Seven Nations" (Iroquios, etc.) who had an advanced and enlightened governing system. Some of our most basic governmental structures are borrowed directly from their example.
An interesting side note: Benjamin Franklin liked to hang out at the local synagogue-- he felt it was the only place he could have a decent, intelligent debate, especially about religious and ethical matters.
Thomas Jefferson Rocks!
(7) Betty Senseman, December 13, 2001 12:00 AM
Excellent article!
So glad to see an article on the contribution of Jews in early America.
(6) Bob Hilliard, December 10, 2001 12:00 AM
In God We Trust doesn't appear on US coinage until 1864
Dear Rabbi Spiro,
The history behind the motto "In God We Trust" can be found on pages 514-520 of the book, THE EAGLE AND THE SHIELD, A History of the Great Shield of the United States, by Richard S. Patterson and Richardson Dougall. Department of State: Washington, DC, GPO, 1976.
The motto first appears on the American 2-cent coin in 1864 and not in the early days of the new democracy. The book I've referenced may be more than you want to know about the motto. For a short item on the subject visit: http://coco.essortment.com/twocentscoins_rlxh.htm
Thanks for listening.
Bob Hilliard
Fairfield, New Jersey
(5) cees verheijen, December 10, 2001 12:00 AM
thank you for the wealth of information.although I'm not Jewish,the history of the jewish people together with the Dead Sea Scrolls is one of my major interests. I see forword to the next instalments happy Chanukah
(4) Jay H Young, December 9, 2001 12:00 AM
factual Jewish American History
could not be said truer as a credit to our constitution by our six earliest American diest Presidents
(3) lisa delcour, December 9, 2001 12:00 AM
re; jewish roots in america
i would like to further add that in an effort to thank hayam saloman for his great contribution that he gave with his money he helped feed washington's men during the harsh winter and when the country was finally formed and the dollar bill made if you look at the amercian dollar bill....there is the star of david and a menorah on it as well as 12 branches in the eagles foot something else i cant remember what it stood for in the other claw of the eagle....all representing israel........and for that i say thank you very much
(2) , December 9, 2001 12:00 AM
GREAT SERIES ! WORTH PRINTING
Youve done a great service with this series
It should be compiled into a booklet and
distributred widely, particularly to the unaffiliated. It also might be useful at Hillel chapters throughout the country and for the numerous basic Judaism classes st synagogues
Yasher Koach
(1) , December 9, 2001 12:00 AM
like it very much..easy read
informative in fact i loved the article